View source for Calineg

{{WIP}}[[Category:A_posteriori_conlangs]]


{{Language|
| English = Calian
| native = Calineg
| country = Calen
| nativecountry = Cale
| universe = Alternate Europe
| speakers = 430-490 million
| family = Indo-European
| branch = Italo-Celtic
| subbranch = P Calinic
| wordorder = VSO (V<sub>1</sub>)
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = K. Willis
| date = circa 2000-2008 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = lightgreen
| width = 33%
}}

Calineg [kæl'inɨg] (''i Galineg'' [i gæl'inɨg]) is an ''a posteriori'' constructed language that is a modern descendant of Proto-Italo-Celtic.  Calineg has been systematically derived from Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic roots that best approximate a synthesis of these branches.  The vocabulary also shows early pseudo-historical borrowing from Latin and later Brythonic loanwords.  The alternate timeline presented in this article has been constructed in order to provide an environment necessary for the survival of the language.

Calineg is today spoken around the world by 171.4 million people as a native language, and by about 260 to 300 million people as a second or third language.  The language ranks 8th among total number of native speakers, and between 7th and 9th overall.  Most native speakers live in Calen (89.6 million), where the language originated.  The rest live in Calophone South America (38.1 million), Canada (28.3 million), Calophone Africa (12.6 million), United States (1.9 million), and Israel (635 000).  Calineg is an official language of 16 countries, most of which form what is know as ''i Galluna'' (The Calophone).  

In Calen, where fluency is a requirement for citizenship, 89.6 million people (96% of 93.1 million) speak Calineg as their native language.  According to the European Union, 159 million people (32% of 497.2 million) speak Calineg, 92.8 million (18.7%) as first language and 65 million (13%) claim it as their second language, which makes it second in the Union after English.  In South America, Calineg ranks third after Portuguese and Spanish, respectfully, in number of native speakers.  Calineg ranks third in North America as well, after English and Spanish.

See [http://home.comcast.net/~kent.willis/site/?/home/ Nosuch Galinege! ''Learn Calineg!''] for more information on the language.


==History==

Proto-Calinic diverged from Proto-Italo-Celtic sometime before the first millennium B.C.E.  Widely spoken across Central Europe, Common Calinic stone inscriptions have been found dating as early as the 3rd century B.C.E.  Common Calinic speakers were first attested in Roman works of the 1st century B.C.E.

The earliest extant sources identifiable as Calineg go back to about the 1st century C.E.  Very little of the language from this period, known as Early Calineg (''Calineg fora''), remains. The next main period, somewhat better attested, is Old Calineg (''Hena Galineg'') from the 3rd to 7th centuries. The period also saw the borrowing of numerous Latin words, especially in technical language.  Middle Calineg (''Calineg metha''), with its soaring epic poetry, runs into the 10th century.  Modern Calineg consists of two distinct periods. It was marked by the extensive influx of Brythonic words after the incorporation of Belgium (''Gwala Felga'') in North Burgundy (''Borgone Golethole'') into Calen. Early Modern Calineg (''Calineg thiwetha bora'') officially began with the drafting of ''The Alliance of Calen and the United Burgundy'' (''Ir Hocida’r Cale a’r Borgone Eloge'') in 937 C.E.  Similarly, Late Modern Calineg (''Calineg thiwetha netha'') began with the drafting of the ''Unification of the Two Kingdoms'' (''Eloga’r thua Wala'') in 1475 C.E.  Current linguistic debate centers over whether the modern era has ended with the widespread education and media publication that effectively made the colloquial register the only known language of the people, and Post-Modern Calineg (''Calineg thiwetha hura'') began in the latter half of the 20th century.

==Phonology==

===Vowels===
<br/>
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}} || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|u}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Near-high || || || || || || || || || || 
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid || || || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low-mid || || || || || || || || || || 
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Near-low || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}
|}
<div style="text-align: left;">

===Consonants===
<br/>
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal ||colspan=2|
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || ng || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || || || c || {{IPA|g}} || || ch
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || || th || || {{IPA|s}} || || || || || || || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || w || || || || || || || || || || h
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral || || || || || l || || || r || || || || 
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || lh || || || rh || || || ||
|}

</div>

===Stress and Pitch===

Stress in polysyllabic words occurs on the penultimate syllable, with rare exceptions. Monosyllabic words are always treated as stressed. Because of a shift in stress position, related words may sound very different as declension, conjugation or compound formation change the word length.

Stress on penultimate syllables is characterised by a low pitch, which is followed by a high pitch on the (unstressed) word-final syllable.

==Morphology==

===Mutation===

Initial consonant mutation is a phenomenon common to Calinic and Celtic languages. The first consonant of a word in Calineg may change depending on grammatical context or when preceded ("triggered") by certain words. Calineg has three mutations: the soft mutation (hence SM), the nasal mutation (NM), and the aspirate mutation (AM). These are also represented in writing:


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Radical
! Soft
! Nasal
! Aspirate
|-
| p
| b
| m h
| f
|-
| b
| f
| m
| 
|-
| t
| d
| n h
| th
|-
| d
| th
| n
| 
|-
| c
| g
| ng h
| ch
|-
| g
| *
| ng
|
|-
| lh
| l
|
|
|-
| rh
| r
|
|
|-
| m
| m h
| 
|
|-
| n
| n h
| 
|
|}

*A blank cell indicates no change.
*Note: /g/  disappears.
*Letters not listed under the category “radical” do not undergo mutation.  

For example, the word for “tree” is ''prana'', but “the tree” is ''i brana'', “my tree” ''fim hrana'', and “her tree” ''ea frana''.  Not all letters mutate under the same environments, so the same sequence for “woman” is: ''bena'' “woman”, ''i fena'' “the woman”, ''fi mena'' “my woman” , but ''ea bena'' “her woman”. Gramatical mutation is discussed under syntax.

===The Article=== 
*There is no indefinite article in Calineg. 
bena, ''a woman''. cethe, ''a man''.
  
*There are three forms of the definite article in Calineg.
  
I is used before a consonant.
i cethe, ''the man''.

Ir is used before words beginning with a vowel or /h/.
ir ore, ''the hammer''.

‘r is used after words that end in a vowel, regardless of whether the following word begins with a vowel or not.

     '''Ma’r fena’n fira.'''  
     Is-FEM.-3S. the [SM]woman-NOM.S. PROG. speak-FEM. 
     ''The woman is speaking.''

Note: Feminine nouns undergo the soft mutation after the direct article.
i fena, ''the woman''.

===Nouns===

In Calineg nouns are declined for gender, number and case.
  
*There are two genders in Calineg: masculine and feminine.
All nouns meaning individual male or female persons are masculine or feminine respectfully, but all nouns referring to a mixed group of males and females are feminine. The gender of all other nouns must be memorized.
  
*There are three numbers in Calineg: singular, dual, and plural.
*There are five cases in Calineg: nominative, accusative, genitive, ablative and vocative.
  
The Nominative is the case of the subject: bena, cethe.
  
The Accusative is the case of the direct object: bene, cethi.
  
The Ablative is the case of the indirect object.  The particle e precedes the noun and causes the nasal mutation: e mena, eng hethe.
  
Genitive is the case of possession.  Genitive relationships are expressed by apposition. The indefinite noun undergoes the soft mutation.
cethe fena, ''a woman’s man''.
  
The Vocative case is the case of direct address. Nouns undergo a soft mutation to form the vocative case.  Proper names, however, usually do not undergo mutation: fena, chethe.

     '''Bures, minduch at ga!'''  
     [SM]Boy-NOM.Pl. go-IMPER.Pl. to [SM]home-NOM.S.
     ''Boys, go home!''

'''Masculine Nouns'''


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Case
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative'''
| e
| en
| es
|-
| '''Dative'''
| e [NM] -e
| e [NM] -en
| e [NM] -es
|-
| '''Accusative'''
| i
| in
| is
|}


'''Feminine Nouns'''


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Case
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative'''
| a
| an
| as
|-
| '''Dative'''
| e [NM] -a
| e [NM] -an
| e [NM] -as
|-
| '''Accusative'''
| e
| en
| es
|}


* For example, consider the declension of brene, ''a male ruler''.


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Case
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative'''
| brene "a ruler"
| brenen "two rulers"
| brenes "rulers"
|-
| '''Dative'''
| e mrene "(to) a ruler"
| e mrenen "(to) two rulers"
| e mrenes "(to) rulers"
|-
| '''Accusative'''
| breni "a ruler"
| brenin "two rulers"
| brenis "rulers"
|}


* And brena, ''a female ruler''


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;" 
! Case
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative'''
| brena "a ruler"
| brenan "two rulers"
| brenas "rulers"
|-
| '''Dative'''
| e mrena "(to) a ruler"
| e mrenan "(to) two rulers"
| e mrenas "(to) rulers"
|-
| '''Accusative'''
| brene "a ruler"
| brenen "two rulers"
| brenes "rulers"
|}

===Pronouns===

Pronouns must agree in gender and number with the noun to which they refer. 

'''Personal Pronouns'''


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Person
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''First'''
| mi
| on
| ni
|-
| '''Second'''
| ti
| en
| chi
|-
| '''Third'''
| ha/e
| an
| nu
|}


Calineg also has special emphatic forms of the personal pronouns.


'''Emphatic Pronouns'''


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Person
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''First'''
| mina
| fina
| nina
|-
| '''Second'''
| titha
| dena
| china
|-
| '''Third'''
| hinta (her)
| dana
| nuna
|-
| 
| finta (himself)
| 
| 
|}


'''Possessive Pronouns'''


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Person
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''First'''
| fi [NM]
| fin [SM]
| eni
|-
| '''Second'''
| di [SM]
| den [SM]
| enich
|-
| '''Third'''
| ea [AM] ('hers')
| dan [AM]
| enu
|-
| 
| ei [SM] ('his')
| 
| 
|}


*The possessive pronouns are also used in the accusative case of the personal pronouns. 


'''Reflexive Pronouns'''


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Person
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''First'''
| finun
| fin hun
| eni hun
|-
| '''Second'''
| dinun
| den hun
| enich hun
|-
| '''Third'''
| danun (herself)
| dan hun
| enu hun
|-
| 
| denun (himself)
| 
| 
|}


'''Demonstrative Pronouns'''


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Person
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| ''''This'/'These''''
| han (f.)
| i - rhan
| i - rhen
|-
| 
| hen (m.)
| 
| 
|-
| 
| hin (intangible)
| 
| 
|-
| ''''That'/'Those''''
| hena/e (f./m.)
| i - rhani
| i - rheni
|-
| 
| heni (intangible)
| 
|  
|}

===Adjectives===

In Calineg, adjectives agree with the gender of the noun they modify: cethe ine, ''last man'' bena ina, ''last woman''.

Adjectives undergo the soft mutation following feminine nouns: bena la, ''small woman'' (From ''lh- 'small' '').
 
*The equative degree can be formed by adding –ad for a feminine or -ed for a masculine adjective, to the stem.  Emphatic pronouns are used if necessary: i fena lad hinat, ''the woman as small as her''.

*The comparative degree is formed by adding –ach or -ech to the stem: bena lach, ''smaller woman''

*The superlative degree is formed by adding –af or –ef to the stem.  The adjective must be preceded by the article.  i feraf, ''the largest''; i lhef, ''the smallest''.

The demonstrative adjectives are enclitic. 'ma'' 'this'/'these' ''and 'na'' 'that/those' ''are affixed to the end of the noun the describe. The article must be used with the noun: i cethe'na, ''this man'', i cethes'na "these men", i fena'ma, ''that woman'', i fenas'ma ''those women''.

===Verbs===

In Calineg verbs are conjugated for voice, mood, tense, number, and person.
 
*There are two voices: active and passive.
  
The active represents the subject as acting or being.

     '''Molo then.'''  
     Praise-1S. [SM]your-2D.
     ''I praise you two.''

The passive represents the subject as acted upon.

     '''Molor.'''
     Praise-1S.-Pass.
     ''I am praised.''
*There are three moods: indicative, subjunctive/conditional, and imperative.

*There are nine tenses: present, past, future (the simple tenses), imperfect, past imperfect, future imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect (the compound tenses).


'''Personal Endings of the Active Voice'''


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Person
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''First'''
| o (-)
| -n
| -ch
|-
| '''Second'''
| -s
| -n-
| -g
|-
| '''Third'''
| -d/-t
| -m
| -th
|}


'''Personal Endings of the Passive Voice'''


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Person
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''First'''
| -r
| -r-n
| -r-ch
|-
| '''Second'''
| -r (-r-s)
| -r-n
| -r-g
|-
| '''Third'''
| -r-d/-r-t
| -r-m
| -r-th
|}


'''The Active Simple Tenses'''


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Number
! Person
! Present
! Imperfect
! Future
! Imperative
|-
| '''Singular'''
| '''1st'''
| o
| a
| i
| -
|-
| 
| '''2nd'''
| es
| as
| is
| us
|-
| 
| '''3rd'''
| ed/et
| ad/at
| id/it
| uch
|-
| '''Dual'''
| '''1st'''
| en
| an
| in
| -
|-
| 
| '''2nd'''
| ene
| ana
| ini
| un
|-
| 
| '''3rd'''
| em
| am
| im
| um
|-
| '''Plural'''
| '''1st'''
| ech
| ach
| ich
| -
|-
| 
| '''2nd'''
| eg
| ag
| ig
| uch
|-
| 
| '''3rd'''
| eth
| ath
| ith
| uth
|}


'''Verbal Nouns'''

The verbal noun is a special verb form that is declined only for gender like an adjective.  The verbal noun can behave in a similar manner to an infinity or gerund in English. In Calineg, the verbal noun is also used to form the compound tenses as well as a noun or an adjective.

*Molo'' 'to praise' ''forms the verbal nouns:

     mola'' 'praising' (feminine subject)'' and mole'' 'praising' (masculine subject)''


'''Bod 'to be' '''


''Bod'' 'to be' is highly irregular. In addition to having inflected forms of the preterite, future, and conditional, it also maintains inflected present and imperfect forms which are used frequently as auxiliaries with other verbs. ''Bod'' also distinguishes between affirmative, interrogative, and negative statements for each tense.


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! colspan="3" scope="col" style="font-weight: normal;" | '''Present'''
! colspan="3" scope="col" style="font-weight: normal;" | '''Past'''
! colspan="3" scope="col" style="font-weight: normal;" | '''Future'''
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! scope="col" | Affirmative
! scope="col" | Negative
! scope="col" | Interrogative
! scope="col" | Aff.
! scope="col" | Neg.
! scope="col" | Inter.
! scope="col" | Aff.
! scope="col" | Neg.
! scope="col" | Inter.
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Singular
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First
| dwi
| rwi dim
| idwi?
| reni
| deri dim
| oni?
| fithi
| fithi dim
| ithi?
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second
| dach
| rach dim
| idich?
| reti
| deti dim
| oreti?
| fithiti
| fithiti dim
| ithiti?
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third
| ma/e
| da/e dim
| ida/e?
| retha/e
| detha/e dim
| oretha/e?
| fitha/e
| fitha/e dim
| itha/e?
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Dual
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First
| dan
| rho dim
| idon?
| ron
| deron dim
| oron?
| fithon
| fithon dim
| ithon?
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second
| den
| rhe dim
| iden?
| ren
| deren dim
| oren?
| fithen
| fithen dim
| ithen?
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third
| man
| rha dim
| idan?
| ran
| deran dim
| oran?
| fithan
| fithan dim
| ithan?
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Plural
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First
| dani
| rani dim
| idani?
| rethi
| deni dim
| oreni?
| fitheni
| fitheni dim
| itheni?
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second
| dachi
| rachi dim
| idachi?
| rechi
| dechi dim
| orechi?
| fithechi
| fthechi dim
| ithechi?
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third
| manu
| danu dim
| idanu?
| renu
| denu dim
| orenu?
| fithenu
| fithenu dim
| ithenu?
|}


The affirmative forms presented above are actually abbreviated forms of the formal roots. Bod also has conditional forms of the verb.  Additionally, Calineg does not have one word for ‘yes’ and ‘no', but instead uses modified verb forms in response to direct questions.  However, they are all omitted here for the sake of clarity.

Becasue a soft mutation always follows the verb phrase, the negative particle ''dim'' appears as ''thim'' in most sentances.

     '''Da'r anera thim en tama.'''
     Is-FEM.S. the young-woman-NOM.S. [SM]NEG. PROG. die-FEM.
     ''The young-woman is not dying.''

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are unique because the do not decline to agree with the verbs they modify.  Most adverbs are formed from the same stem as the corresponding adjective and a null suffix.

Compare:
     '''Ma'n rheda ber.'''                  '''Ma'n fera.'''
     Is-FEM.3S. PROG. run-FEM. slow.  Is-FEM.3S. PART. [SM]slow-FEM. 
     ''She is running slowly.''           ''She is slow.''

===Prepositions===

Some prepositions decline for grammatical gender.  They are called personal prepositions. They must be memorized because they are highly irregular.  The radical form of a preposition is used before nouns and adjectives to from prepositional phrases.

'''Personal Prepositions'''


:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Radical
! 'Me'
! 'You' (s.)
! 'Her'/'Him'
! Dual
! 'Us'
! 'You' (pl.)
! 'Them'
|-
| '''Ag''' 'at'
| agam
| agat
| aga/e
| agan
| agi
| agof
| agu
|-
| '''Am''' 'about/for'
| amdana
| amdanat
| amdana/e
| amdon
| amdani
| amdonon
| amdonin
|-
| '''Ar''' 'on'
| arna
| arnat
| ara/e
| arn
| ari
| archi
| arnun
|-
| '''As''' 'out of'
| asam
| asat
| asa/e
| asan
| asi
| asod
| astu
|-
| '''At''' 'to'/'towards'
| atam
| atat
| ata/e
| aton
| ati
| atoch
| atin
|-
| '''Chug''' 'towards'
| chugam
| chat
| cha/e
| chun
| chuci
| chuch
| chucu
|-
| '''Dan''' 'under'
| danam
| danat
| dana/e
| danan
| dani
| dachi
| danu
|-
| '''E''' 'in'
| emi
| eti
| eda/e
| eden
| edihi
| edif
| edin
|-
| '''Gan''' 'with'
| gen
| geni
| genna/e
| genon
| geneni
| genoch
| genenu
|-
| '''In''' 'to'
| imi
| ito
| ifa/e
| inen
| ini
| ichi
| inu
|- 
| '''Id''' 'between'
| idmi
| iditi
| idiha/e
| idin
| edra
| edar
| etar
|-
| '''O''' 'from'/'of'
| ono
| onat 
| ona/e
| on
| oni
| onich
| onu
|-
| '''Rom''' 'before'
| roham
| romat 
| roma/e
| ron
| romi
| roman
| romu
|-
| '''Nes''' 'next'
| nesam
| neset
| nesa/e
| nesan
| nesi
| nesan
| newu
|-
| '''Thar''' 'over'
| tharam
| tharat
| thara/e
| thon
| thomi
| tharan
| tharu
|-
| '''Ti''' 'by means of'
| tam
| tat
| ta/e
| ton
| tithi
| tin
| tinu
|-
| '''Um''' 'around/about'
| unam
| umat
| uma/e
| uman
| umi
| umaf
| umu
|}

*All personal prepositions cause the soft mutation (SM), except for ti'' 'by means of'''.
*The dual form of the preposition is used in all cases.

==Syntax==

In an inflecting language like Calineg word order is theoretically optional.  Practically, however, the verb normally occupies the first position in neutral sentences, with the subject following.  In English, the verb is the second main idea and it separates the subject from the complement—either the object or a phrase dependant on the verb.  In Calineg, neutral sentences are VSO and so a soft mutation (SM) is used to separate the subject from the complement.  This most fundamental rule of Calineg grammar can be summarized as: Subject[SM].

     '''Bonet i cethe thure.'''
     Open-3.MASC.S. the man-NOM.S. [SM]door-ACC.S.
     ''The man opens a door.''

Unlike English, Calineg is VSO in affirmative, interrogative and negative sentences.

Affirmative
     '''Me’r cethe ar na.'''
     Is-1MASC.S. the man-NOM.S. on ship-NOM.S.
     ''The man is on a ship.''
Interrogative
     '''Ide’r cethe ar na?'''
     Is-1MASC.S. the man-NOM.S. on ship-NOM.S.
     ''Is the man on a ship?''
Negative
     '''De’r cethe thim ar na.'''
     Is-1MASC.S.NEG. the man-NOM.S. [SM]NEG. on ship-NOM.S.
     ''The man is not on a ship.''