View source for Anggloo-Saksyn

Anggloo-Saksyn oor Oold Ingglic (A.S. '''Englisc''') iz dhy ansestyr yv Madern Ingglic.  It iz y West Dxermanik Langgwidx and laik Dytc and Loo Saksyn (Loo Dxerman) it did nat goo throo dhy Hai Dxerman Kansynent Cift.  

{{Language|
| English = Anggloo-Saksyn
| native = Englisc
| dialect english = 
| country = Anggloo-Land (Inggland)
| nativecountry = Angelcynn
| universe = Riil world
| speakers = unknown
| family = Indoo-Joroopijyn
| branch = Dzermanik
| subbranch = West Dxermanik <br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Anglo-Frisian <br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Angglik
| wordorder = Ynimpoortant/V<sub>2</sub>
| type = inflekting
| alignment = naminytiv-akjuusytiv
| author = ynoon
| date = 400-1066 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 33%
}}


=The People and Literature=
The Saxons were invited to Britain to help fight off the Picts.  A large migration of Saxons then moved from modern Northern Germany and Holland to England.  The next few centuries they expanded westward constantly and gained more land.  The people then became mixed with the Romano-British people already living there.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, Danish Vikings invaded parts of England.  The [[Old Norse]] influence can still be seen today.  

The most well known text in Anglo-Saxon is that of the Heroic Epic, [[Beowulf]].  Old English literature is known for alliteration, and there are many Anglo-Saxon riddles.  A chronicle known as the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] was a chronicle of the events of the Kingdom, and was likely started in the 10th century and was continually updated into the 12th.


There is no standard spelling in Anglo-Saxon, so many words had more than one spelling.

=Orthography and Phonology=
==Runic==
[[Image:Anglo-saxon runes.gif|thumb|right|Anglo-Saxon Runic alphabet]]
Early forms of Anglo-Saxon writing was in [[Runic]].  It was an expansion of the original 24 rune Fuþark, and had become Fuþorc.  Because the language had shifted to include new sounds, the alphabet itself shifted and included several new letters that had not been in the Elder Fuþark.  However they did not develop the one Staff system similar to the runic designs in Norway, Sweden and Denmark.

When the Latin Alphabet was introduced, Anglo-Saxon added two symbols to the Latin alphabet from Runic, those would be "þ" /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/ and "Ƿ" /[[Labial-velar approximant|w]]/ from runic, called Thorn and Wynn respectively.

==Alphabet==
The Old English Alphabet was a Latin based alphabet and included a few extra symbols that modern English speakers would not necessarily recognize.  The diagraphs were also quite different than modern spelling and included cg /[[Voiced Post Alveolar affricate|ʤ]]/ and  c /[[Voiceless Post Alveolar affricate|ʧ]]/ and sc /[[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]]/.  The latter two only become those sounds before or after a front unrounded vowels, otherwise they are /[[Voiceless velar stop|k]]/ and /sk/ respectively.  The letter '''g''' becomes /[[Palatal approximant|j]]/ next to front vowels.  This is how '''gear''' becomes '''year'''.  The common verbal prefix for the past participle is '''ge-''' which was pronounced /jə/ and this sound was preserved into [[Middle English]] as '''y-''' such as in [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] with words like '''yronne''' (ran).

Old English did not use the letters '''v''' and '''z''', because '''f''' and '''s''' became /[[Voiced labiodental fricative|v]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]/.  The letters '''þ''' and '''ð''' both represented the inter-dental fricative /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/ (initially and finally) and /[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ (between vowels).  This would mean that that all the fricatives would be voiced between vowels, and voiceless in other cases.


The letter '''h''' was pronounced /[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]/ when beginning a syllable or word.  After a back vowel, it becomes /[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]/, and after a front vowel, it becomes /[[Voiceless palatal sibilant|ç]]/.

=Morphology=
==Nouns==
===Gender and Number===
There are there Genders in Old English: [[Masculine]], [[Feminine]], and [[Neuter]].  These are the same genders in [[Latin]], as well as modern [[Russian]] and [[German]].  Like most languages which have genders, Nouns which reflecting living things are usually indicated in the [[Gender]] of the noun, but a majority is completely random.

The two numbers of Anglo-Saxon are [[Singular]] and [[Plural]].  Pronouns have the Dual number as well.

===Cases===
Unlike [[Modern English]], Anglo-Saxon was filled with noun inflections denoting the case of the noun.  The only one that survived through the [[Middle English]] era was the '''-'s''' ending denoting the original Genitive case.  The cases were [[Nominative]], [[Accusative]], [[Genitive]], and [[Dative]].

===Strong and Weak===
Like with Verbs, Anglo-Saxon had many nouns which changed their stems, both in the plural and sometimes during some  of the cases of the singular.  These are the reasons for irregular nouns in [[Modern English]] with stem changes, such as Man-Men (AS Mann-Menn in Nom.).  This is often how Anglo-Saxon nouns are categorized.

===Example charts===
'''Masculine:'''
{| border="1"
|-
! Cases
! Dæg¹ 'Day'
! Dagas 'Days'
! Stān 'Stone'
! Stānas 'Stones'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || dæg || dagas || stān || stānas
|-
| '''Genitive'''  || dæges || daga || stānes || stāna
|-
| '''Dative'''  || dæge || dagum || stāne || stānum
|-
| '''Accustive''' || dæg || dagas || stān || stānas
|}
¹'''Dæg''' was pronounced much like the word '''Die''' in [[Modern English]], or the Australian/Cockney pronunciation of '''"Day."''' <br>

'''Feminine:'''
{| border="1"
|-
! Cases
! Hond² 'Hand'
! Honda 'Hands'
! Ƿynn³ 'Joy'
! Ƿynna 'Joys'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || hond || hondu || Ƿynn || Ƿynna
|-
| '''Genitive'''  || honda || honda || Ƿynne || Ƿynna
|-
| '''Dative'''  || honda || hondum || Ƿynne  || Ƿynnum
|-
| '''Accustive''' || hond || honda || Ƿynne  || Ƿynna
|}
²'''Hond''' could also be spelt/pronounced '''Hand'''. <br>
³'''Ƿ''' could also be spelt '''W''', so '''Ƿynn''' could easily be '''Wynn'''. <br>

'''Neuter:'''
{| border="1"
|-
! Cases
! Scip⁴ 'Ship'
! Scipu 'Days'
! Dēor⁵ 'Animal'
! Dēor 'Animals'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || scip || scipu || dēor || dēor
|-
| '''Genitive'''  || scipes || scipa || dēores || dēora
|-
| '''Dative'''  || scipe || scipum || dēor || dēorum
|-
| '''Accustive''' || scip || scipu || dēore || dēor
|}

⁴'''Scip''' is pronounced the same way as the modern equivalent, '''Ship'''. <br>
⁵'''Dēor''', related to the German word '''Tier''' (animal), slowly became used for game animals, and later becomes '''Deer''' in Modern English. <br>

==Articles==
During the earlier ages of the Anglo-Saxon language, there were no articles.  Later, especially after the Viking invasion and towards the end of the Anglo-Saxon era, articles were developed.  They too declined by case and number, and included the [[Instrumental]] case, which was the same as Dative Nouns.  Here are the articles:
{| border="1"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || se || sēo || ðæt || ðā
|-
| '''Genitive'''  || ðæs || ðǣre || ðæs || ðāra, ðǣra
|-
| '''Dative'''  || ðǣm || ðǣre || ðǣm || ðǣm, ðām
|-
| '''Accustive''' || ðone|| ðā || ðæt || ðā
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || ðē, ðon || ðǣre || ðē, ðon || ðǣm, ðām
|}

==Personal Pronouns==
Personal pronouns in Anglo-Saxon are quite different than Modern English.  They too are declined according to the four major cases, but also have an extra number illustration when there 2, [[Dual]].  With the dual, the verbs take the plural endings, and it only applies to the first and second person pronouns.  Here are the the Charts for the Pronouns: <br>
'''First person:'''
{| border="1"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ic, ih || Ƿit, wit || Ƿē, wē ||
|-
| '''Genitive'''  || mīn || uncer || ūre ||
|-
| '''Dative'''  || mē || unc || ūs ||
|-
| '''Accustive''' || mē|| unc || ūs ||
|}

'''Second person:'''
{| border="1"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || þū || git || gē ||
|-
| '''Genitive'''  || þīn || incer || ēoǷer, ēower ||
|-
| '''Dative'''  || þē || inc || ēoǷ, ēow ||
|-
| '''Accustive''' || þē || inc || ēoǷ, ēow ||
|}

'''Third person:'''
{| border="1"
|-
! Cases
! Mascu. Sing.
! Fem. Sing.
! Neut. Sing.
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || hē || hēo || hit || hīe
|-
| '''Genitive'''  || his || hiere || his || hiera
|-
| '''Dative'''  || him || hiere || him || him, heom
|-
| '''Accustive''' || hine || hīe || hit || hīe
|}

==Adjectives==
Adjectives also decline by gender, number, and case.  Because one adjective has to cover all three genders, two numbers, and four (five with the Strong) cases, there are more adjective forms than there are any other part of speech, with the possible exception of the verb.  They too have Strong and Weak forms and can have root vowel stems which are umlauted.  The plurals of the Weak forms are uniform across genders, but not in the Strong forms.  The same adjective could be Weak or Strong depending on context and the noun.

===Examples===
'''Gōd = Good''' <br>
'''Weak''':
{| border="1"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || gōda || gōde || gōde || gōdan
|-
| '''Genitive'''  || gōdan || gōdan || gōdan || gōdena
|-
| '''Dative'''  || gōdan || gōdan || gōdan || gōdum
|-
| '''Accustive''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōde || gōdan
|}

'''Strong''':
{| border="1"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Pl. Masc.
! Pl. Fem.
! Pl. Neut.
|-
| '''Nominative''' || gōd || gōd || gōd || gōde || gōda || gōd
|-
| '''Genitive'''  || gōdes || gōdre || gōdes || gōdra || gōdra || gōdra
|-
| '''Dative'''  || gōdum || gōdre || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum
|-
| '''Accustive''' || gōdne || gōde || gōd || gōde || gōda || gōd
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || gōde || gōdre || gōde || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum
|}

==Prepositions and Conjunctions==
Here is a list of Prepositions and Conjuctions.
===Prepositions===
æt - (dat.) at, from, (acc.) until, to <br>
tō - (dat.) to, towards, at, <br>
wið, wiþ - against, <br>
æfter - (dat.) after, <br>
on -  (dat.) in, on, (acc.) into, onto <br>
mid - (dat.) with, <br> 
of - (dat.) of, from, <br>
be - (dat. and acc.) by, near, along, about, <br>
beforan - (dat. and acc.) before, ahead of <br>
fram - (dat.) from, by, <br>
ofer - (dat.) over, upon (acc.) over to, across, <br>
þurh - (acc.) through <br>
under - (dat.) under (acc.) under, <br>
ymbe - (acc.) near, by, about, <br> 
in -  (dat.) in, (acc.) into, <br>
būtan - (dat. or acc.) outside, except, without, <br>
betweox - (dat. or acc.) between, among, <br>
binnan - (dat.) within, (acc.) to within, <br>
oð - (acc.) up to, until,  <br>
geond - (acc.) through, throughout, <br>
bufan (dat.) above, (acc.) upwards, <br>
innan - (dat.) within (acc.) into, <br>

===Conjunctions===
æfter - after, <br>
ǣr - before <br>
gif - if, <br>
hwæðer, hwæþer - whether <br>
þā, ðā - when, <br>
hwīle - while, <br>
swā - as, such,  (this word has a phonetic/semantic cognate in [[Old Norse]], sva.) <br>
swelce - as if, <br>
þæt, ðæt - that, so that, <br>
þǣr, ðǣr  - where, <br>
þēah, ðēah - though, <br>
siððan, siþþan - since, after, (this one is also in [[Old Norse]] and [[Middle English]] such as the first line in [[Sir Gawayn and the Grene Knyght]].) <br>

==Verbs==
===Verbal Comparison, Patterns, and General Overview===
Like nouns and adjectives, Verbs have [[Strong]] and [[Weak]] forms.  The Strong forms usually involve vowel shifts in the stem, even in the present tense.  It is also inflected based on [[person]], [[number]], [[tense]], and [[mood]].

It is known for having -st in the second person, which was used for '''thou''' in the [[Middle English]] era.  It is also used in [[German]] for the '''du''' form, which is the cognate to '''þū''' and '''thou''' (which also a cognate to [[Latin]] '''tu''').  [[Anglo-Saxon Verbs]] are known for the signature -ð/-þ ending in the 3rd person singular, which was also used into the [[Early Modern English]] era, which [[Shakespeare]] is apart of, examples from that era include the words: hath, goeth, doth, knoweth, etc.  

The infinitive ending is commonly -an, which is similar to the modern [[German]] -en infinitive ending.  Also the orthographic cognate ge- is used in both German and Anglo-Saxon to represent the past tense, even if they are not pronounced the same way, and in Standard [[High German]], the prefix is required, whereas the Anglo-Saxon one is more optional.  The [[Weak]] past tense marker insert -ed-, whereas the [[Strong]] past tense usually involves a vowel change.

Although Anglo-Saxon did have the Subjunctive and Imperative, the examples shall be focused on the Present and Past tenses.

==='''Weak Examples'''===
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0
|- 
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lufian''' to love || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Fremman''' to do
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person'''  || lufie || lufiað || fremme || femmað
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || lufast || lufiað || fremest || femmað
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lufað || lufiað || fremeð || femmað
|- 
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person'''  || lufode || lufodon || fremede || femmedon
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || lufodest || lufodon || fremedest || femmedon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lufode || lufodon || fremede || femmedon
|}

==='''Strong Examples'''===
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0
|- 
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Singan''' to sing || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Niman'' to take
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person'''  || singe || singað || nime || nimað
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || singest || singað || nimest || nimað
|-
| '''3rd person''' || singeð || singað || nimeð || nimað
|- 
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person'''  || sang || sungon || nam || nāmon
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || sunge || sungon || nāme || nāmon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || sang || sungon || nam|| nāmon
|}

==='''The Verb <i> Bēon <i> and <i> Wesan <i>'''===
There are two forms of the verb <i>[[to be]]<i> in Anglo-Saxon.  They both share the same past tense, rooted in '''wesan'''..  The verb form '''wesan''' was preserved in the past tense, in the form of '''was''' and '''were'''.

These verb forms were also preserved into the [[Middle English]] era, in an [[Epic]] called [[Brut]]: <br>
"Al swa muchel thu bist woruh, swa thu velden ært."<br>
(All as much thou art worth, as thou kind art)<br>
You are worth as much as you are kind.<br>

{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0
|- 
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Bēon''' to be || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Wesan''' to be
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person'''  || bēo || bēoð || eom|| sind, sindon
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || bist || bēoð || eart || sind, sindon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || bið || bēoð || is || sind, sindon
|- 
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense'''
|-
| || || sing. || pl. ||  ||
|-
| '''1st person''' ||  || wæs || wǣron || || 
|-
| '''2nd person''' ||  || wǣre || wǣron || || 
|-
| '''3rd person''' || || wæs || wǣron || || 
|}

=Sources and External Links=
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/runic.htm#futhorc

http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-0-X.html

http://members.tripod.com/babaev/archive/grammar43.html

http://home.comcast.net/~modean52/index.htm

http://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/index.html

Finegan, Edward. "English." The World’s Major Languages. Ed. Bernard Comrie. New York, NY Oxford University Press, 1990

Atherton, Mark. Teach Yourself Old English. Coventry, England, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.: 2006.

Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].

=Translations=
Find [[Anglo-Saxon|this page]] in Standard [[English]].