View source for 'Ukana'akau

{{Infobox|name='Ukana'akau
|pronounce=/?ukana?akau/
|tu=nonspecific
|species=Human
|in=nonspecific
|no=unknown
|script=Own
|tree=None
|morph=Isolating
|ms=Accusative-Dative
|wo=(T)VAP
|creator=[[User:Sectori|Sectori]]
|date=February 2006<br>revised March 2008}}

'Ukana'akau was created by [[User:Sectori|Sectori]] on the [http://www.spinoff.com/zbb ZBB] as part of Neek's Minimal Phonology Challenge in February 2006. It was revised in March 2008. Relevant linguistic information: the speakers of 'Ukana'akau are called the 'Akau. 'Ukana'akau is topic-marking, almost completely isolating, and accusative-dative (see below for more information).

==Phonology==
'Ukana'akau has a fairly simple phonology.

===Phoneme Inventory===
The nine phonemes of the challenge were <tt>/p t k s n ? a i u/</tt>, romanized as <nowiki><p t k s n ' a i u></nowiki>. Additionally, there is a fourth "grammatical vowel", transcribed <v>, which is covered in more detail in the section on nominal morphology.

===Syllables===
'Ukana'akau's original syllable structure was (C)(')V (with <nowiki>''</nowiki> not permitted), but C' clusters have since been reanalyzed as glottalized consonants <tt>/p_? t_? k_? s_? n_?/</tt>, leaving the structure (C)V.

===Allophony===
Vowel clusters, which technically constitute multiple syllables, are generally realized as diphthongs or triphthongs.

===Stress===
Stress falls regularly on the penultimate syllable. Monosyllabic words are usually stressed. However, particles, such as '''iki''' and '''tv''' are never stressed.

==Nominal Morphology==
A note at the beginning: any time the word "noun" appears in this section, it can be freely replaced with "pronoun," which is to say they are treated the same. A variety of preposed particles are used with nouns.

* '''kv''' is the topic-marking particle
* '''tv''' is the object-marking particle
* '''pv''' is the location/motion-marking particle
* '''sv''' is the vocative particle
* ''''v''' is the generic plural-marking particle

When a plural needs to be marked on any particle other than ''''v''', the initial consonant becomes glottalized, i.e. '''k'v''', '''t'v''', '''p'v''', '''s'v'''.

===Topic===
The topic-marking particle defaults to being placed before the subject/agent of the sentence, i.e.

{| 
! k'aki || ''k'a'' || ta'aka || tu || nu'au
|-
| create  || TOP.PL  || god || OBJ.SG || world
|-
| the || gods || create || the || world
|}

where '''k'a''' marks '''ta'aka''' ''gods'' as the topic/agent. If further emphasis is desired, or if another nominal or pronominal constituent is be topic marked, the topic is fronted and an anaphoric particle is left in its place (the marker for the fronted constituent), for example

{|
! ku || nu'au || k'aki || ('a) || ta'aka || ''tu''
|-
| TOP.SG || world || create || (PL) || god || OBJ.SG
|-
| the || world, || the || gods || create || it
|}

The topic can also act as an introductory phrase, i.e. ''as for the world, the gods created it''. The anaphoric pronoun is the particle that was in the original sentence.

===Object===
The object-marking particle marks the direct object/patient by default, and is used in several compound expressions, e.g. '''tua tv''' (marks the recipient or beneficiary). When an object has already been stated, rather than restate it or use a third person pronoun, the object particle is used as an anaphoric device. For example,

{|
! 'i || t'asa || ku || ti'u || ''ta'' || '''ut'asa'' || tua ti || ka'i; || 'i || t'asa || ka'i || ta || tua || ''ta'' || pu'a
|-
| PAST || give || TOP.SG || 2P || OBJ.SG || gift || REC.SG || 1P || PAST || give || 1P || OBJ.SG || REC.SG || 3P
|-
| you || gave || the || gift || to || me; || I || gave || it || to || him
|}

where '''ta''' in the second clause shows that 'ut'asa gift is still the object.

===Location===
The location-marking particle marks, unsurprisingly, location, after the generic relation-markers ni (in, at, on), na (to, at, towards), and nu (from, out of, away from). These are treated as adverbs, and thus come between the irrealis marker and the past marker before verbs. A locational expression can be used as a verb by placing the stative particle a'u before it and moving it to the front of the clause. In such a case, it can take the same particles as any verb, except a locational adverb. For example:

{|
! a'u || 'i || ni || pu || Sa'aku || ki || ka'i
|-
| STAT || PAST || in || LOC.SG || Sa'aku || TOP.SG || 1P
|-
| I || was || in || Sa'aku
|}

===Vocative===
The vocative particle marks direct address, e.g.

{|
! su || K'uanu, || ka || uka || n'a || ini
|-
| VOC.SG || K'uanu || TOP.SG || IMP || ALLADV || HERE
|-
| K'uanu, || come || hither
|}

===Plural===
The separate plural-marker ''''v''' is optional in most cases. It is usually only used in cases where context cannot distinguish number. It is only used on unmarked subjects/agents (i.e. the subjects/agents of clauses where the topic has been fronted).

===Possession===
Possessive relationships are shown by placing the possessor after the possessee, e.g.

{|
! ta'aka || ka'i
|-
| god || 1P
|-
| my || god
|}

==Verbal Morphology==
Verbs also take particles to show a number of things, as well as being able to be modified by adverbs. In the order they appear in a sentence: there is a particle marking a verb as irrealis (realis is unmarked), particles marking a verb as imperfective or stative (perfective is unmarked), a particle marking the past the past tense (non-past is unmarked), and a variety of particles (the list is incomplete) marking mode and evidentiality. The mood, aspect, and tense particles, as well as adverbs, come before the verb, while the mode and evidentiality markers are clause final. Finally, there are some special nominal constructions that affect the verb.

===Irrealis===
The irrealis particle is '''iki'''. It is used with the nonpast to show doubt, hope, or possibility, and with the past to show a contrafactual. With the clause-initial particle kiu, the irrealis sets up a condition which can have several different translations depending on a number of factors. The past irrealis sets up a contrafactual (if I had done...[and I didn't]; if I should do...[and I may or may not]) or hypothetical condition, and the nonpast sets up a standard condition (if I did...[and I did]; if I do...[and I will/have]). The tense of the realis determines whether the entire conditional is past (...then I would have done...) or nonpast (...then I will do...). (The parentheticals are just examples of some conditional openings and conclusions.)

===Perfective===
The perfective aspect is the default unmarked aspect. The imperfective aspect is marked by the particle '''a'i''' and the stative by the particle '''a'u'''. The perfective aspect shows that an action was/is/will be completed. The imperfective shows that the action was not/is not/will not be completed, or is habitual. The stative, like the perfect in English, shows a state resulting from a past action. The stative is also used to from stative verbs from adjectives and to turn verbs into a "participial/gerundive" form that can act as an adjective or a noun (although in the case of many common verbs, such as '''t'asa''' give, this form has already become codified as a noun, e.g. ''''ut'asa''' gift.

===Adverbs===
Following aspect markers come adverbs. Adverbs fall into several categories. First, there is the negative marker '''nui'''. In a sequence of adverbs, this always comes first, and marks that the verb is negative. Second come temporal markers such as ''''iaki''' ''yesterday'' and '''nuaki''' ''tomorrow''. Third come adverbs derived from adjectives with the particle '''sua'''. Finally, locational, allative, and ablative adverbs, either the simple forms such as '''n'i''' ''here, there'' or the long forms such as '''ni pu Sa'aku''' ''in Sa'aku''.

===Past===
Finally is the past tense marker ''''i'''. It shows that the verb describes a past action.

===Preverbal Particles===
So, the final order of preverbal particles: irrealis - aspect - negative - temporal - adverb - locative - past

===Clause-Final Particles
A number of particles are clause-final, acting somewhat like English modal verbs.

* '''ua''' is the permissive particle, either asking, granting, or withholding permission from someone.
* '''ita''' is the dubitative particle, showing doubt on behalf of the speaker.
* '''pau''' marks the sentence as hearsay: the speaker has yet to confirm what he or she has heard.
* '''kui''' marks the sentence as fact that the speaker has confirmed and believes to be true.
* '''anu''' is the potential particle, i.e. "able to" or "can".

Marking evidentiality with '''pau''' or '''kui''' is not obligatory, but can clarify the meaning of a sentence in some contexts. More of these particles are yet to come.

===Causative===
The causative works by adding a second agent argument A2. The second agent is marked by the particle '''is'a ('v)''' and is generally fronted, e.g.

{|
! is'a || 'u || 'Akau || 'i || k'aki || ki || ka'i || tu || nu'au
|-
| CAUS || PL || 'Akau || PAST || create || TOP.SG || 1P || OBJ.SG || world
|-
| the || 'Akau || made || me || create || the || world
|}

If a topic other than the subject of the main verb is fronted, A2 moves to clause-final position, although it always precedes the receiver argument, if there is one.

{|
! ku || nu'au || 'i || k'aki || ka'i || tu || is'a || ('u) || 'Akau
|-
| TOP.SG || world || PAST || create || 1P || OBJ.SG || CAUS || (PL) || 'Akau
|-
| as for || the || world, || the || 'Akau || made || me || create || it
|}

===Passive===
The passive, marked by the particle '''atu''', reverses A and P. The order of constituents changes from VAP to VP atu A. P is marked as the topic and A is unmarked, except for plurality. For example:

{|
! 'i || k'aki || ku || nu'au || atu || ('u) || 'Akau
|-
| PAST || create || TOP.SG || world || PASS || (PL) || 'Akau
|-
| the || world || was || created || by || the || 'Akau
|}

This usage is just an inverse, switching the emphasis from the agent to the patient. The passive can be translated with the English passive, but in reality it's usually just a less emphatic way of changing the topic. Topic-fronting is more common when specific emphasis is necessary, especially when changing the focus for the first time, but the passive is used in subsequent cases when the extra emphasis would be out of place.

However, the A argument can also be dropped, in which case a topic-marker is left in its place, a more prototypical passive than the general usage. This is one of a very few times that more than one topic-marker may appear in a clause.

{|
! 'i || k'aki || ku || nu'au || atu || k'u
|-
| PAST || create || TOP.SG || world || PASS || TOP.PL
|-
| the || world || was || created || by || them
|}

===Imperative===
The imperative takes no preverbal particles, is usually preceded by a vocative expression, and always replaces the subject/agent (the commandee) with the particle '''uka'''. '''Uka''' is always topic-marked and fronted. No anaphoric particle is left in its place.

{|
! su || ti'u, || ka || uka || k'aki || tu || nu'au
|-
| VOC.SG || 2P || TOP.SG || IMP || create || OBJ.SG || world
|-
| you, || create || the || world
|}

===Existentials===
Existentials are formed with the stative expression a'u n'i. N'i is a pronominal/adverbial particle meaning here, there. This expression is treated as a verb in all respects, including fronting and taking particles. If clarification as to the location is needed, a further locative expression can be used, e.g.

{|
! a'u || 'i || ni || pu || Sa'aku || n'i || ka || ta'aka
|-
| STAT || PAST || in || LOC.SG || Sa'aku || LOCADV || TOP.SG || god
|-
| there || was || a || god || in || Sa'aku
|}

===Impersonal Expressions===
Impersonal expressions are formed with the ubiquitous stative particle '''a'u''' and an anaphoric topic '''ka'''. Like the passive, if another topic is to be fronted, the extra topic marker remains. An impersonal sentence may be translated in a number of ways depending on context.

{|
! k'u || nu'au || a'u || n'i || k'aki || ka
|-
| TOP.PL || world || STAT || LOCADV || create || TOP.SG
|-
| worlds || are || created || there
|-
| "they" || create || worlds || there
|}

{|
! a'u || n'i || kinu || ka || tu || 'Ukana'akau
|-
| STAT || LOCADV || speak || TOP.SG || OBJ.SG || 'Ukana'akau
|-
| "they" || speak || 'Ukana'akau || there
|-
| 'Ukana'akau || is || spoken || there
|}

It can also express, to a certain degree, ability, e.g. they can speak 'Ukana'akau there.

==Adjectives==
Adjectives, such as '''puia''' ''red'', always follow the noun they modify, e.g.

{|
! 'ut'asa || puia
|-
| gift || red
|-
| red gift
|}

However, if the adjective is really a stative verb, the stative marker '''a'u''' precedes the noun but follows any nominal particle, e.g.

{|
! ka || a'u || 'ut'asa || t'asa
|-
| TOP.SG || STAT || gift || give
|-
| the || given || gift
|-
| the || gift || that || is || given
|}

An adjective may be used as a stative verb, e.g. ''be red''. In such cases it acts as a verb in all respects, including taking verbal particles and moving to the front of the clause. Such adjectives always take the stative particle ''a'u'':

{|
! a'u || 'i || puia || ku || 'Akau
|-
| STAT || PAST || red || TOP.SG || 'Akau
|-
| the || 'Akau || was || red
|}

An adjective can be changed into an adverb with the particle '''sua'''. Adverbs (formed with '''sua''' or otherwise) can be used to modify adjectives. In such cases, the adverb follows the noun it modifies.

{|
! ka || ta'aka || puia || nui
|-
| TOP.SG || god || red || not
|-
| the || not || red || god
|}

[[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A priori conlangs]]